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ADD: Working with Your School

Parents of children and adolescents with ADD must develop a close working relationship with school personnel for a number of reasons. First, you need to monitor the effectiveness of the treatment. For example, if your child is receiving medication, it is crucial that you are in close communication with the teacher in order to see if the medication is working. Second, you need to be a strong advocate for your child. Establishing a good relationship with school staff will enable you to have some impact on your child's program. And most importantly, you need to develop consistency between home and school. When the parents and teachers communicate in a cooperative fashion, the child will reap the benefits.

Federal legislation mandating special education services is relatively new. As of 1975, with the passage of the Education of the Handicapped Act (also referred to as Public Law 94-142), all children with special educational needs must be provided with a free, appropriate public education. Before 1975, the quantity and quality of services provided was dictated by where you lived; some states had programs and others didn't. Some parents of children with special needs would move to a different state or a different community in order for their child to receive the needed educational services. During the congressional hearings that led to the passage of P.L. 94-142, it was found that half of all the children with special educational needs were not being provided with any services whatsoever. For parents of children with ADD, this was a major concern until recently, when the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) - also referred to as Public Law 101-476 - included a memorandum specifying that children with ADD be eligible for special education services. The 1997 amendments to IDEA reinforced and strengthened this provision.

Our national consciousness was raised with the passage of federal legislation that assured parents that their disabled child would receive educational services from age three until age eighteen. However, the school district was not mandated to provide services to the three to five age group unless they had a school program for nondisabled three- to five-year-olds. In 1986, PL. 99-457 extended these services to all disabled children in the three to five age group.

Parents now have specific regulations, implemented by the federal, state, and local governments, that ensure that the services to which they and their disabled children are entitled are forthcoming.

A Right to an Education
Most parents take for granted that they can bring their five-year-old to kindergarten registration and their child will be enrolled. Before P.L. 94-142, however, parents of children with special needs were not provided with this basic right. They paid the same school taxes as their neighbors and their portion of federal and state taxes used for education was the same, but they could not count on their children receiving an education.

Many schools felt they were unable to provide an education for special education students; they didn't have the personnel, the facilities, or the equipment. But, moreover, it was an issue concerning the value of an education and what constitutes an education. Should a severely retarded child receive an education? Should a deaf-blind child receive an education? Should an autistic child receive an education? These and similar types of questions were debated for years before any legislation, and there were and still are differences of opinion.

Also questioned was what is an education? Should it be defined as the acquisition of academic skills? If so, what about those who would never acquire those skills? The hearings surrounding the passage of the Education of the Handicapped Act provided a focus for experts, parents, and legislation on all sides of the issue. The conclusion was that if any child in a school district is entitled to an education, then all children are entitled. The needs of each child must be considered. Children must receive an education, and it is the responsibility of the local school district to develop an appropriate educational plan. The recognition that all children must be provided with an education set the stage for provisions regarding the quality of such an education.

A Right to a Free, Appropriate Education
The education for special education students must be appropriate to their needs and provided at no cost to the parents. If the most appropriate placement is a special school with a wide variety of support services, such as speech therapy, physical therapy, and psychological services, then the student must receive these services. The spirit of the law is clear: all children are entitled to an education, and this right should not be dictated by the parents' ability to pay.

In order to ensure that each special education student is provided with an appropriate education, the authors of P.L. 94-142 required the inclusion of an Individualized Education Program, commonly referred to as an I.E.P. The format of the I.E.P. differs from school district to school district, but must always include the following:

1. The student's current level of performance in the areas of concern.

2. Annual and short-term objectives.

3. The specific education services to be provided and the extent to which the student will participate in regular education.

4. The projected date for initiation of the program and anticipated duration of such services.

5. A description of the schedules and evaluation procedures for determining whether objectives are being met.

Parent participation is necessary if the I.E. P. is to be a useful document. Schools must involve parents in each step of the process.

An important component of the I.E.P. is the Least Restrictive Environment statement. The school must state to what extent your child is being educated in the mainstream, that is, regular classroom instruction. The law is very clear; it states that "the handicapped child should be educated with his nonhandicapped peer to the maximum extent possible." Special education students do not need to be isolated in order to achieve. Conversely, some students' needs are best met in a more restrictive setting, such as a special school. The point of the Least Restrictive Environment statement is that all children have the right to learn in an environment consistent with their academic, social, and physical needs. By providing for individual needs, the letter and the spirit of the law are observed.

A Right to a Nondiscriminatory Evaluation
In the recent past, students who could not speak English were evaluated in English and placed into special education based on that evaluation. This can no longer take place; students must now be evaluated in their native language. Therefore, if the child is Spanish-speaking, the evaluation must be in Spanish and all written information must be translated at all school meetings that parents attend. If a student's processing mode of communication is sign language, then the same holds true. An interpreter must be present to sign the entire evaluation, and if the parents need an interpreter, the school must provide one at no cost to the parents. All of this has been established to ensure that students are referred, identified, and placed in special education settings based on a nondiscriminatory process.

Parents must be advocates for their children and be willing to request appropriate services. A child cannot be evaluated without parental permission, and if a parent feels that an evaluation solely in English would be unfair to the child, she should request an evaluation in the child's primary language. A simple translation of the test is not sufficient. Rather, the evaluators must be aware of the linguistic and cultural needs of the student, and it is up to the school district to ensure that these types of services are provided. There is considerable evidence in the professional literature to suggest that many students are placed in special education settings based on examiner and testing bias. Parents must be aware of their rights in this matter if they are to ensure an appropriate, nondiscriminatory education for their child.

A Right to Due Process
Perhaps the most important of all rights is the right to due process under the law. Parents are to be kept fully informed at every stage if they are in disagreement with any decision. Specifically, parents have the right to:

• Review all school records.

• Review assessment procedures (underlying test).

• Refuse or permit evaluation.

• Be informed of the results of the evaluation.

• Be provided with an independent "second opinion" at public expense.

• Participate in multidisciplinary team meetings.

If you disagree with the findings of the school district, you are entitled to a due process hearing, also referred to as an impartial hearing. The specific manner in which you request such a hearing varies from state to state. Check with your local Director of Special Education or Director of Pupil Personnel Services. In general, the law stipulates the following:

• You must be informed of free or low-cost legal or other relevant services.

• An unbiased, impartial hearing officer (he or she cannot be employed by the school district) will give you and other advocates for your child an opportunity to present your side of the issue.

• You are entitled to a written or topic-recorded, word-for-word record of the proceedings.

• You are entitled to an interpreter of the deaf and/or interpreter of the language spoken in your home, at no expense.

• You are entitled to be represented by an attorney and/or other professionals, and any other persons of your choice can accompany you to the hearing.

• You and your attorney can cross-examine officials from the school district.

• All information presented must be shared with you at least five school days before the hearing.

You will be informed of the hearing within 45 calendar days of your request. You may appeal your decision to the Commissioner of Education in your state. Unless you choose otherwise, your child remains in his current placement until all proceedings are completed.

The reason for these provisions is not to establish an adversarial relationship between parents and schools. Rather, it is to ensure a free, appropriate, public education for all children. The right to due process helps to keep this vision intact. The Council for Exceptional Children provided highlights for IDEA 1997 in their publication CEC Today (April/May, 1999). Those related to ADHD are:

Other Health Impairment
Attention deficit disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder may result in eligibility for special education services under the "other health impairment" category. This is the first time ADHD is specifically noted in IDEA.

Supplementary Aids and Supports
Supplementary aids and services include aids, services, and other supports that are provided in general education settings to enable children with disabilities to be educated with nondisabled children to the maximum extent appropriate. This can include a computer, one- to-one aid, and/or an auditory trainer (FM Unit), to name a few.

Service plans
Services and Aids That Benefit Children with Disabilities
A school may use funds for special education, related services, and supplementary aids and services provided in a general education setting for a child with a disability, even if children without disabilities receive incidental benefit from the services. This is very important, because it relates to specific strategies for students with ADHD.

Mediation
School and state education agencies must ensure that procedures are established and implemented to allow parents and schools to resolve their differences through mediation.

Evaluation
When evaluating a student for eligibility for special education, schools must:

• Assess the child in all areas of suspected disability, including cognitive, behavioral, physical, and developmental factors.

• Use a variety of assessment tools and strategies to gather functional and developmental information. The assessment tools and strategies must also help determine the child's educational needs.

• Include information from the parent that can help determine whether the child has a disability and the content of the I.E.P.

• Gather information related to the child's involvement and progress in the general education curriculum.

• Obtain informed consent from the parent before the evaluation is conducted. The agency may continue to pursue an evaluation if the parents refuse consent by using mediation and due process procedures.

IEPs
IDEA 1997 added new I.E.P. requirements and expanded existing requirements. The I.E.P. must include

• A statement of the child's present levels of educational performance, including how the child's disability affects his or her involvement and progress in the general education curriculum. For preschool children, it must describe how the disability affects the child's participation in appropriate activities.

• A statement of measurable annual goals, including benchmarks or short-term objectives related to
  

  (A) Meeting the child's needs that result from his or her disability and enable the child to be involved in and progress in the general education curriculum.

  (B) Meeting each of the child's other educational needs that result from the child's disability.

• A statement of the special education, related services, and supplementary aids to be provided to the child, or on behalf of the child. Such statement should also include any program modifications or supports for school personnel that are needed for the child to be involved in and progress in the general education curriculum; to participate in extracurricular and other nonacademic activities; and to be educated and participate with children with and without disabilities.

• The extent to which the child will not participate with children without disabilities in the general education class.

• Any modification in the administration of statewide or district-wide assessments that are needed for the child to participate in the assessment.

• If the child will not participate in the assessment or part of the assessment, a statement explaining why that assessment is not appropriate and how the child will be assessed.

• The projected date for the beginning of the services and modifications, and their frequency, location, and duration.

• The child's transition service needs (beginning at age 14 and updated annually) that focus on his or her courses of study. This should include, when appropriate, the interagency responsibilities or needed linkages (beginning at age 16 or younger), and a statement that the child has been informed of the rights that will transfer to him or her on reaching the age of majority under state law.

• How the child's progress toward the annual goals will be measured and the extent to which the child's progress will enable him or her to achieve the goals by the end of the year.

• How the child's parents will be regularly informed of their child's progress, at least as often as parents of nondisabled children are informed.

Including Parents in the I.E.P. Team
Each LEA or state education agency (SEA) must ensure that the parents of each child with a disability are members of any group that makes decisions on the educational placement of their child.

Including General Education Teachers in the I.E.P. Team

• If the child participates or may be participating in the general education environment, the I.E.P. team must include at least one of the student's general education teachers. The teacher must participate in the development, review, and revision of the child's I.E.P. The general education teacher must also help determine appropriate positive behavioral interventions and strategies for the child, as well as any supplementary aids, and program modifications and supports for school personnel that will be provided on the child's behalf.

Access to the I.E.P.
The I.E.P. of a child with a disability must be accessible to each general education teacher - as well as to each special education teacher, related service provider, and other service providers - who is responsible for implementing the I.E.P.

• Each teacher must be informed of his or her specific responsibilities related to implementing the I.E.P. and the accommodations and supports the child will receive. This is of critical importance for students with ADHD.

Discipline
Behavioral Assessments and Behavioral Interventions

• I.E.P. team meetings to develop a behavioral assessment plan or review a current behavioral intervention plan are required only when the child has been removed from his or her placement for more than ten school days in a school year and/or when removing the child constitutes a change in placement.

• After removing the child for more than ten consecutive days, or beginning action to remove a child and change his or her placement, the I.E.P. team must meet within ten school days to plan a functional behavioral assessment and implement a behavioral plan to address the problem behavior. If the child already has a behavior intervention plan, the I.E.P. team should review the plan and modify it to address the behavior.

• If subsequent removals occur, the I.E.P. team members review the child's behavioral intervention plan and its implementation to determine if it should be modified. The I.E.P. team meets only if one or more team members believe that modifications are necessary.

Parent Appeal and Child Placement

• Parents who disagree with any decision regarding placement may request a hearing. If they do, the SEA or LEA must arrange for an expedited hearing. During the appeal, the child remains in the IAES pending the hearing officer's decision or until the 45-day time limit ends - whichever occurs first.

• If a child is placed in an IAES and the school proposes to change the child's placement after the IAES ends, the child remains in his or her current placement (the placement before the IAES). However, if a hearing officer determines that there is a likelihood of injury to the child or others in his or her prior placement, the placement may be ch - is a topic of heated discussion in special education circles. But for students with ADD, inclusion does not represent a major change in the way they have been receiving special education services. The advocacy board of the Center on Human Policy at Syracuse University has the following statement on inclusion:

  Inclusion Means:

  1. Educating all children with disabilities in regular classrooms, regardless of the nature of their disabling condition(s).

  2. Providing all students with enhanced opportunities to learn from each other's contributions.

  3. Providing necessary services within the regular schools.

  4. Supporting regular teachers and administrators (e.g., by providing time, training, teamwork, resources, and strategies).

  5. Having students with disabilities follow the same schedules as nondisabled students.

  6. Involving students with disabilities in age-appropriate academic classes and extracurricular activities, including art, music, gym, field trips, assemblies, and graduation exercises.

  7. Allowing students with disabilities to use the school cafeteria, library, playground, and other facilities along with nondisabled students.

  8. Encouraging friendships between nondisabled and disabled students.

  9. Allowing students with disabilities to receive their education and job training in regular community environments when appropriate.

  10. Teaching all children to understand and accept human differences.

  11. Placing children with disabilities in the same schools they would attend if they did not have disabilities.

  12. Taking parents' concerns seriously.

  13. Providing an appropriate individualized educational program.
  
  Inclusion Does Not Mean:

  1. Dumping students with disabilities into regular programs without preparation or support.

  2. Providing special services in separate or isolated places.

  3. Ignoring children's individual needs.

  4. Jeopardizing students' safety or well-being.

  5. Placing unreasonable demands on teachers or administrators.

  6. Ignoring parents' concerns.

  7. Isolating students with disabilities in regular schools.

  8. Placing students with disabilities in schools or classes that are not age-appropriate.

  9. Requiring that students be "ready" and earn their way into regular classrooms, based on cognitive or social skills.
  
  Much more research needs to be undertaken before inclusionary placements can be deemed more effective than other special education settings. This issue will continue to be a topic of debate among special education professionals and parents alike.

  In January 1993 the Learning Disabilities Association of America issued a Position Paper on inclusion. It is presented below.

  The Learning Disabilities Association of America, LDA, is a national not-for-profit organization of parents, professionals, and persons with learning disabilities concerned about the welfare of individuals with learning disabilities. During the 1990-1991 school year, 2,117,087 children in public schools in the United States were identified as having learning disabilities. This is more than 50 percent of the total number of students identified in all disability categories, included many students diagnosed with ADD.

  "Full inclusion," "full integration," "unified system," "inclusive education" are terms used to describe a popular policy/practice in which all students with disabilities, regardless of the nature or the severity of the disability and need for related services, receive their total education in their home school.

  The Learning Disabilities Association of America does not support "full inclusion" or any policies that mandate the same placement, instruction, or treatment for ALL students with learning disabilities. Many students with learning disabilities benefit from being served in the regular education classroom. However, the regular education classroom is not the appropriate placement for a number of students with learning disabilities who may need alternative instructional environments, teaching strategies, and/or materials that cannot or will not be provided within the context of a regular classroom placement.

  LDA believes that decisions regarding educational placement of students with disabilities must be based on the needs of each individual student rather than administrative convenience or budgetary considerations, and must be the result of a cooperative effort involving the educators, parents, and the student when appropriate.

  LDA strongly supports the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), which mandates:

  • A free and appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment appropriate for the students' specific learning needs.

  • A team approved Individualized Education Program (I.E.P.) that includes current functioning levels, instructional goals and objectives, placement and services decisions, and procedures for evaluation of program effectiveness.

  • A placement decision must be made on an individual basis and considered only after the development of the I.E.P.

  • A continuum of alternative placements to meet the needs of students with disabilities for special education and related services.

  • A system for the continuing education of regular and special education and related services personnel to enable these personnel to meet the needs of children with disabilities.
  LDA believes that the placement of ALL children with disabilities in the regular education classroom is a great violation of IDEA, as is the placement of ALL children in separate classrooms on the basis of their type of disability.

  LDA urges the U.S. Department of Education and each state to move deliberately and reflectively in school restructuring, using the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act as a foundation - mindful of the best interest of all children with disabilities. The school psychologist, school social worker, guidance counselor, reading teacher, speech and language pathologist, and other specialists provide support services to children with ADD. The focus of this section is on a group of people who play an important function in our schools. Depending upon the terminology used by your own school, they may be referred to as support services, ancillary services, child study teams, prereferral teams, or building level teams. They represent a wide variety of services that are provided to students as they progress through the school years.

  Following is a brief description of the roles of various professionals who provide much needed services in our schools. Although licensing varies from state to state, most of these positions require either a master's or a doctorate degree, and considerable supervision before working in a school setting. To be sure, there will be overlap between the roles of the various professionals, and individuals occupying these positions may take on different and/or additional responsibilities. If you ever feel unsure about the boundaries of expertise, consult with your child's principal.

  School Psychologist
  The major responsibility of most school psychologists is to assess the intellectual and social-emotional status of students. School psychologists are frequently called upon to administer individual intelligence tests when there is a question about a student's ability to perform in school, and to evaluate a student's social-emotional status when this becomes a concern of parents and school personnel.

  In addition to these responsibilities, school psychologists meet with individual or groups of students to discuss issues that concern them, consult with teachers to determine the most effective way to deal with specific students, and talk to parents about their child's school-related behavior. If a student is encountering a problem that is beyond the scope of the school, the school psychologist can make appropriate referrals to the parent.

  School Social Workers
  Depending upon the school district, the grade level, or the principal, the responsibilities of the school social worker may include providing services to students and staff, such as direction and referrals to outside mental health facilities and public welfare agencies; providing information on substance abuse, alcoholism, and child abuse; and meeting with parent groups. School social workers may also provide counseling services on an individual or group basis, dealing with a wide variety of issues. Issues may include separation, divorce, depression, peer pressure, or suicide, thus enabling students to deal with these difficult concerns through emotional support and reassurance. When the needs of the student and family cannot be accommodated in a school setting, the social worker can give parents the name and number of an appropriate individual or agency.

  Guidance Counselor
  The majority of guidance counselors are employed on the secondary level (middle/junior/high school). Typically, they are responsible for assisting students with the selection of classes, career counseling, and postsecondary placements (college/vocational/employment). However, they may engage in other activities. They may work with groups of students who are not working up to their potential; they may smooth the transition from middle/junior high school to high school; and they may encourage teacher-student communication, especially when students are mainstreamed into regular classes. They are also able to make appropriate referrals when the problem is beyond their expertise.

  Reading Specialist
  Most students learn to read with little or no difficulty. However, a small group of students encounter considerable trouble with this task. For them, the services provided by the reading specialist can be invaluable.

  Students are usually referred to this specialist by their classroom teacher when it is apparent that their reading skills are not progressing at an appropriate rate. The reading specialist will then administer individual or small group diagnostic reading tests that will enable her to determine the current level of performance, the student's strengths and weaknesses, and information that will be useful in selecting the best reading approach. If the problem appears to be more than just reading, an appropriate referral can be made.

  Most instruction is provided in small group or individual sessions and in consultation with the regular classroom teacher. Reading specialists will also work directly with regular classroom teachers in order to improve reading instruction on a school-wide basis.

  Speech and Language Pathologist
  When a child's speech or language does not meet chronological age expectations, he is often referred to a speech and language pathologist. A thorough assessment of speech and language functions would be undertaken and an appropriate intervention plan developed.

  Problems in articulation, voice disorders, and stuttering represent only a small part of the speech or language pathologist's responsibility. They spend considerable time working with students who have difficulty understanding language and being able to express their thoughts through language, both oral and written. They also refer students to appropriate personnel if the problems encountered by students are greater than a speech or language impairment.

  Parents who know the roles and responsibilities of the support personnel will be better able to advocate for their children. No doubt sometime in your child's school career you will be confronted with results of standardized tests. Throughout the course of the evaluation for the identification of ADD, and through the school year, these results may be used to determine school readiness, class placement, and course selection. By understanding the test results you will be better equipped to make informed decisions.

  Types of Tests
  Most standardized tests can be categorized as intellectual and aptitude, achievement, or diagnostic tests. It is important to know the type of test administered to a child, because each test yields unique kinds of results.

  Intellectual (Intelligence) Tests
  These tests are employed by most school districts to screen for intellectual impairment and to assess student potential. Sometime during the intermediate grades (fourth, fifth, and sixth), and then again sometime during the high school years, students are given paper and pencil intelligence tests such as the Otis-Lennon. These tests yield an intelligence quotient, frequently referred to as an I.Q. score or simply I.Q.

  Intelligence tests have been challenged in the court because of their inability to predict school performance and their bias against certain racial or ethnic groups; therefore, many of them have been renamed. What were once called intelligence tests are frequently referred to as learning ability, cognitive batteries, or simply ability tests.

  An I.Q. score that falls between 90 and 110 is considered average. Depending upon how far in either direction the score is from this average range, further testing may be indicated.

  If the student appears to be significantly above or below average on a group administered test, an individual intelligence test such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) or the Stanford-Binet Test of Intelligence may be used to better estimate the child's abilities. There are differences between the group-administered and individually administered tests. The former takes little time and can be given by a person with minimal training, whereas the latter is usually administered by a licensed school psychologist.

  Aptitude Tests
  Aptitude tests attempt to measure traits and abilities necessary for future success in a given field. Usually students are given aptitude tests, such as the Differential Aptitude Test, toward the end of middle or junior high school, in order to determine a course of study or area of interest or ability. As is the case with all tests, these results are never to be used by themselves alone.

  Achievement Tests
  These tests are usually administered by the classroom teacher at least once per year. Achievement tests are the most frequently used and probably the most recognizable tests employed by schools. The more popular achievement tests are the C.A.T. (California Achievement Tests), the S.A.T. (Stanford Achievement Tests), or the Iowa Basics (The Iowa Test of Basic Skills).

  These and other similar tests measure how a student compares in achievement of skills to a large standardized sample of his grade in a particular curricular area, such as reading. Recently, a large number of states have developed their own achievement tests to measure how well a particular group of students performs a skill, such as writing, reading, or math at specific grade levels.

  As is the case with intelligence tests, if a student appears to be significantly above or below grade level, an individually administered achievement test can be used to measure academic skill achievement.

  Diagnostic Tests
  Diagnostic tests are not routinely administered in school. These tests are reserved for students who are suspected of having a learning or behavioral problem. The most useful type of standardized test, diagnostic tests yield information that is educationally relevant about learner performance. This information enables a teacher to develop a systematic intervention plan.

  How to Interpret Tests
  Two important characteristics of all standardized tests are validity and reliability. Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is supposed to measure. Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of the test results when the test is administered on different occasions.

  Both validity and reliability are arrived at through statistical analysis, and these numbers are readily available from children's teachers. If parents are concerned about a particular test, they may want to meet with the person who is responsible for their school district's testing and discuss whether the tests used in the school are valid and reliable measures.

  Understanding Test Scores
  Standardized test scores are obtained by comparing a student's performance with the performance of other students who have taken the test. Derived scores are then reported in a number of ways, the most frequent being grade equivalent, age equivalent, percentile ranks, and stanines.

  Grade Equivalent (G.E.)
  G.E. is expressed in two numbers separated by a decimal point. The school year (September through June) is divided into tenths, and each month is represented as one tenth. For example, a grade equivalent of 4.5 is interpreted as January of the fourth grade; a 9.1 is September of the ninth grade, and 3.7 is March of the third grade.

  The student's performance should be presented as a range of scores rather than as an exact number. If a student received a grade equivalent of 4.5 and the Standard Error of Measurement is 0.3, then the range is 4.2 to 4.8. This is a much more accurate description of a student's performance than a single score. However, even when presented with this range, also called bands of confidence grade equivalents, it must only be used in the most general way to indicate performance that is somewhat below average or somewhat above average. For example, if a fourth-grade student received a G.E. of 12.5 in reading, does it mean he should be moved to a twelfth grade group? No, it merely means that he performed the way a twelfth grader would, if he took the same tests.

  Age Equivalent (A.E.)
  A.E. scores are also based on the average student's performance on a particular test, but instead of using grade levels, they report the score in terms of chronological years. The score is separated by a hyphen between the years and months, and is based on the calendar year, not the school year. Therefore, a score of 7-6 (7 years-6 months) would reflect the performance of an average 7-1/2-year-old on that particular test.

  These scores should also be reported as a range so that the 7-6 might have a Standard Error of Measurement of 0.2 (plus or minus) and be reported as 7-4 to 7-8. As is the case with grade equivalents, these scores should only be interpreted in the most general way.

  Percentile Rank
  This score demonstrates a student's relative position in a group of students who have taken a particular test. The percentile rank is the point below which the percentage of students register. For example, if a raw score on a spelling achievement test is 23, the information is not useful. Yet, when converted to a percentile rank of 67, for example, it means that the student performed better than 67 percent of the students taking the test at that time, or that 33 percent of the students taking the test at that time scored higher than that student.

  Stanines
  A stanine is obtained by dividing the raw test score into nine equal parts. For example, a student achieving a stanine score of 1 would be at the lowest end of the performance scale and a student with a stanine score of 9 would be at the highest, while a stanine score of 5 indicates the student percentile is exactly in the middle of the scores. Many tests report stanines, as well as one or more of the scores above. Stanines are just another way to divide scores into units.

  Limitations of Standardized Tests
  When employed in conjunction with teacher-made tests, anecdotal reports, report cards, and ongoing observation in the classroom, standardized test results can contribute to the total picture of how well a student is performing in school. If they are used as the sole criteria to interpret a student's performance, however, then they are obstacles to effective instruction.

  If you are concerned about the results of your child's testing, follow these steps:

  Step 1. You will usually receive test information at a parent-teacher conference at the elementary level, and through the mail at the secondary level. After receiving this information, request a total picture of your child; you should not be handed only the test score.

  Talk to the teachers or guidance counselor about the relationship between the test scores and other evaluations of your child's performance. Is there consistency? Does each teacher or guidance counselor believe that the tests are accurate (valid/reliable) in your child's case?

  In most circumstances, test scores represent only a part of your child's total performance. If you believe that the test scores are not an accurate measure of how your child performs in school, proceed to step 2.

  Step 2. If the scores being presented are not a range of scores, insist on receiving a range. When given this range, you may decide that the discrepancy is not an issue.

  Step 3. If a placement decision is being made based on the test scores and you are not in agreement, you have a number of options:

  • Find out as much as you can about the particular test by contacting school personnel or calling a local college or university and inquiring about it from a member of the psychology or education department.

  • Specifically ask: How reliable and valid is the test? What was the norming sample? What is the test's purpose? How should it be used?

  • Ask the school to administer an individual test to provide you and the school with additional information.

  • Obtain a second opinion from a college or university or hospital educational clinic. In this way you will be provided with a battery of individually administered tests that may help you make a more informed decision.

  • Most schools have an appeals process in these matters. Find out the steps you must follow and speak to the appropriate school personnel.
  Parents of special education children need to be vigilant about all aspects of their child's education. Considering the weight placed on standardized tests in our schools, parents should be aware that this is one area of critical importance. A special language that we have named educationese, terms and jargon specifically related to the teaching profession, exists in today's schools. Many parents, because they are not familiar with this special language, may feel embarrassed about their lack of knowledge or understanding of a particular term used by school personnel. More problematic are situations in which parents make decisions for children based on a program or teaching system that is foreign to them.

  Although the compilation of frequently used terms provided below is not exhaustive, it should be thorough enough to assist parents in most interactions with school personnel.

  Elementary Grades

  • Basal readers: A series of books based on a particular grade level used by the average reader. Typically, these readers incorporate a variety of reading approaches instead of utilizing one approach throughout. A student typically has a reader and workbook.

  • Child study team: A group consisting of a psychologist, social worker, guidance counselor, classroom teacher, and principal who regularly meet to discuss ways to assist students at a risk. Team membership may vary from school to school.

  • Cultural literacy: A body of knowledge that should be known by all who are literate in a particular culture. For example, when television news reporters mention the Middle East, they assume that viewers understand that they are referring to the area of the world that includes Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Iraq.

  • Drill: The repetition of basic skills to a point that they become automatic.

  • Dyslexia: A general term used to refer to a language-based reading disorder which appears to stem from a central nervous system dysfunction. Parents need to know that this term is often used to describe any kind of reading problem. If it is suggested that a child has a reading disorder, his parents should consult with a learning disability or reading specialist.

  • Extended day: A period of time beyond the traditional half-day kindergarten. For example, some school districts use this term to describe a full kindergarten day, while others use it to label an hour or so of kindergarten that is scheduled to extend a half-day kindergarten program.

  • Fine motor skills: The skills that involve the body's small muscles; tasks such as handwriting, cutting, coloring, and drawing all require adequate fine motor skills.

  • Gifted/talented: A program for a student who excels in a particular area of schooling.

  • Gross motor skills: The skills that involve the body's large muscles. Physical activities such as throwing, running, and jumping, as well as general movement, are included in this group of skills.

  • Grouping by ability: The act of dividing students into groups, such as reading or math, based on their abilities. This usually is based on test scores, teacher judgment and grades.

  • Mainstreaming: The act of educating special education students in classes with their nondisabled peers.

  • Open classroom: A nonstructured, flexible approach to learning in which instruction is guided by the teacher, yet each child can progress at his own rate. An open classroom is more student-directed than a traditional classroom, which is more teacher-directed.

  • Phonics: An approach to reading and spelling that teaches a student to associate letters with sounds. A student then uses these skills to analyze the sequence of sounds, put them together and pronounce new words.

  • Positive reinforcement: The act of focusing on a student's appropriate behaviors and following that behavior with something positive, such as praise, a smile, a pat on the back, or a tangible reward.

  • Pull-out program: A program that removes a student from his regular classroom so that he may receive instruction in a particular area by trained personnel. Remedial reading, resource rooms, speech therapy, and math labs are all examples of pull-out programs.

  • Readiness skills: The skills that are deemed to be prerequisites for higher-level skills. For example, in order for a child to write, he must possess adequate eye-hand coordination and fine motor skills, as well as the ability to attend to a task.

  • Remedial reading/math: Instruction given to a student when he falls below a certain level. A teacher with specific training in this area provides the instruction, usually on a short-term basis. Remedial instruction is not equivalent to special education.

  • Rote learning: Learning that requires little thought process other than the memorization of a body of knowledge, such as a multiplication table or the names of planets.

  • Standardized tests: Tests employed by school districts for a variety of reasons, including class grouping, course selection, reading groups, special education referrals, and program evaluations. These tests attempt to compare an individual child to a group of children who have taken the same test. Findings are reported in terms of a particular score, such as a grade level or an age level.

  • Support services: Services that provide additional support beyond the classroom. These may include counseling, speech/language therapy, remediation, social work services, and parent training.

  • Tracking: The act of placing students in the same grade in different learning groups, such as a lower track or a higher track, based on level of performance. In tracking, the groups are less fluid than when grouped by ability. Frequently, a student remains in a track throughout his school career. The notion of locking children into a certain level of classes has been criticized by some professionals.

  • Whole language approach: An approach that emphasizes the language basis of listening, reading, speaking and writing, not rote learning. It is a natural, meaningful, thought out approach to language arts instruction. A student is immersed in literature and learns to develop an appreciation of it early in his school career.

  • Whole word ("look-say") approach: An approach in which a student is taught to recall what a whole word looks like in order to read it, as opposed to using phonetic skills to sound the word out. The shapes of words are highlighted to help a student distinguish and remember them.
  Middle/Junior High School
  

  • Accelerated class: A class that allows a student to take two years' worth of course work in one year so that she can move more rapidly through her subjects. By the time a student enters high school, she may have already taken a few freshman level courses if she has taken accelerated classes.

  • Aptitude tests: Tests that attempt to assess a student's ability to perform in specific areas. Schools usually administer aptitude tests in eighth grade to assist a student in planning his high school curriculum and career possibilities.

  • Content area: A specific body of knowledge that is distinguished from the basic skill subjects of reading, writing, and math. However, a content area, such as social studies, French, or geometry, utilizes the basic skill subjects.

  • Extracurricular activities: Activities beyond the traditional school curriculum. Although some extracurricular activities may have existed in elementary school, the options available in junior high school are more abundant and varied. Activities include athletics, speech/drama clubs and student government, for example.

  • Guidance counselor: A counselor who will assist a student in course selection, help develop her high school curriculum and, depending upon the administrator's training, advise her on other education-related matters.

  • Interdisciplinary studies: Studies that combine two or more subjects, such as English and science, so that a student can apply one content area to other subjects. For example, a student can apply his writing skills in the area of science and his scientific inquiry skills in English. Depending on the creativity of the teacher(s) involved, there are any number of possibilities for interdisciplinary studies.

  • Peer pressure: The pressure exerted on a student to be part of a group. At the middle/junior high school level, a particularly strong pull exists for a student to be like his friends. Conforming, therefore, in terms of dress, language, and behavior standards, is deemed important by a student. While most aspects of peer pressure are not harmful, responding to pressure from peers to act inappropriately may cause a student to adopt troublemaking behavior in and out of school.

  • Progress reports: Reports issued between report cards to inform a student and his parents of his performance. Although many schools still only send "poor" progress reports, more are realizing the importance of informing a child and his parents that the young pupil is performing well.
  High School
  

  • Advanced placement: Classes that enable a student to take a test (referred to as an AP test) that may enable him to receive advanced placement for college courses. Some colleges will actually give credit hours depending on the student's test results, while others will waive specific courses.

  • American College Test (ACT). A standardized test, including English and math usage; social studies comprehension; and natural science reading. These test results are used as one selection criteria for college admission.

  • Career education: Exposure to the various occupations that are available in the work world. While this should be provided throughout a student's school career, it is often not until high school that he receives such exposure.

  • Electives: Courses that are not required. A student should select his electives with care, because more often than not, the many course requirements imposed on high school students do not leave many open hours in which electives may be scheduled.

  • Graduation requirements: Specific requirements, such as grades or standardized tests, for a student to complete successfully in order to graduate. A student and his parents should be aware of their state's requirements early in the child's high school career so that they can be certain that he is proceeding according to an appropriate academic sequence.

  • Honors classes: Classes that provide opportunities for more in-depth exploration of a topic than traditional classes. A student is selected for these classes; the criteria upon which the selection is based vary.

  • PSAT: A standardized test that is viewed as a practice test for the SAT I. This test usually is taken in the latter half of the tenth grade or in the beginning of the eleventh grade.

  • SAT I: A standardized test taken during the junior or senior year of high school, or both years, that is used as one indicator of a student's ability to succeed in college. It measures quantitative and verbal skills.

  • Vocational education: Training in a particular vocational area for a student who does not wish to pursue a college education. Some high schools are equipped to provide vocational education, while others contract with outside agencies for these types of classes.
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  From Keys to Parenting a Child with Attention Deficit Disorders by Barry E. McNamara, Ed.D. & Francine J. McNamara, M.S.W., C.S.W. Copyright © 2000 by Barron's Educational Series, Inc. All rights reserved. Used by arrangement with Barrons Educational Series, Inc.

  Buy the book at Barron's.